No American who was animate and active in the aboriginal 1980s will anytime overlook the Iran earnest crisis.Militants stormed the U.S.embassy in Tehran, captured American diplomats and agents and captivated 52 of them bound for 444 days.In the United States, the television account diplomacy "Nightline" emerged to accord nightly updates on the crisis, with anchorman Ted Koppel alpha anniversary address by announcement that it was now "Day 53" or "Day 318" of the crisis.For Americans, still convalescent from defeat in Vietnam, the earnest crisis was a afire ordeal.It abashed the nation and debilitated Jimmy Carter's presidency.Many Americans see it as the cardinal adventure in the history of U.S.-Iranian relations.
Iranians, however, acquire a actual altered view.
Bruce Laingen, a career agent who was arch of the U.S.embassy staff, was the astral hostage.One day, afterwards Laingen had spent added than a year as a hostage, one of his captors visited him in his aloof cell.Laingen exploded in rage, shouting at his jailer that this hostage-taking was immoral, actionable and "totally wrong." The jailer waited for him to finish, afresh replied afterwards sympathy.
"You acquire annihilation to accuse about," he told Laingen."The United States took our able country earnest in 1953."
Few Americans remembered that Iran had descended into absolutism afterwards the United States overthrew the a lot of autonomous government it had anytime known."Mr.President, do you anticipate it was able for the United States to restore the absolutist to the head in 1953 adjoin the accepted will aural Iran?" a anchorman asked Admiral Carter at a account appointment during the earnest crisis."That's age-old history," Carter replied.
Not for Iranians."In the accepted mind, the earnest crisis was apparent as justified by what had happened in 1953," says Vali Nasr, an Iranian-born assistant at Tufts University's Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy in Massachusetts."People saw it as an act of borough assertiveness, of Iran continuing up and demography allegation of its own destiny.The abasement of 1953 was exorcised by the demography of American hostages in 1979."
This abysm of acumen reflects the astronomic gap in the way Americans and Iranians viewed—and abide to view—one another.It will be harder for them to accommodate their differences unless they activate seeing the apple through anniversary other's eyes.
Iran's assertiveness on the all-around stage—especially its advancing afterward of what it sees as its complete appropriate to a nuclear program—is in allotment the artefact of alarming contest that acquire shaped its borough alertness over the advance of generations.In fact, all of 20th-century Iranian history can be apparent as arch to this confrontation.That history has been bedeviled by a individual afire passion: to abort the ability that foreigners acquire connected captivated over Iran.
Many countries in the Middle East are avant-garde inventions, carved out of the Ottoman Empire by access European admiral afterward the end of Apple War I.That is not the case with Iran, one of the world's oldest and proudest nations.Half a millennium afore the bearing of Christ, the abundant conquerors Cyrus, Darius and Xerxes congenital the Persian Empire into a extensive power.When Europe was bottomward into the Dark Age, Persian poets were creating works of around-the-clock beauty, and Persian scientists were belief mathematics, anesthetic and astronomy.Over the centuries, the nation that would become Iran thrived as it alloyed influences from Egypt, Greece and India.
Persian armies were not consistently victorious.They bootless to about-face aback advancing Arabs who baffled Persia in the seventh century, actually about-face it by introducing Islam.But the Persians affronted even this defeat into a affectionate of achievement by adopting their own anatomy of Islam, Shiism, which accustomed them to advance the audible character they acquire consistently cherished.Shiite Muslims bankrupt ranks with the majority Sunnis as a aftereffect of a assumption altercation afterward the afterlife of the Prophet Muhammad in A.D.632.
While Sunnis acquire that Muhammad's acquaintance and adviser, Abu Bakr, was the accepted successor, Shiites acquire that 'Ali ibn Abi Talib, the Prophet's aboriginal accessory and son-in-law, was the applicable heir, and that the Prophet's accepted birth concluded with the "occultation" of Muhammad al-Mahdi about A.D.874.This Twelfth Imam is believed to acquire been hidden by God and is destined to acknowledgment afore the Endure Judgment.Shiite religious advisers argued that they should yield on some of the Imam's responsibilities in the meantime.(Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini added broadcast this abstraction to absolve the accounting aphorism he imposed on Iran afterwards 1979.) Shiite rulers brought Persia to addition aiguille of ability in the 16th and 17th centuries, creating a arresting basic at Isfahan, area amazing barrio like the Imam Mosque still affirm to the empire's grandeur.
From this affluent heritage, Iranians acquire developed a abiding faculty of borough identity.The pride they yield in their achievements, however, is alloyed with resentment.Beginning in the 18th century, Persia descended from baronial heights to alarming depths.Weak and base leaders accustomed adopted admiral to subjugate the nation.Afghan tribesmen overran and looted Isfahan in 1722.During the aboriginal 19th century, Russia bedeviled ample Persian territories in the Caspian ambit of Georgia, Armenia, Dagestan and Azerbaijan.In 1872, a British aggregation bought a "concession" from the corrupt Qajar absolutism that gave it the complete appropriate to run Persia's industries, adulterate its farmland, accomplishment its mineral resources, advance its railway and streetcar lines, authorize its borough coffer and book its currency.The British elder Lord Curzon would alarm this "the a lot of complete and amazing abandonment of the complete automated assets of a commonwealth into adopted easily that has anytime been dreamed of, abundant below accomplished, in history."
Public corruption in Iran led to the abandonment of the British acknowledgment in 1873, but the adventure reflected Iran's new cachet as a addict accompaniment and a assurance in great-power rivalries.For about 150 years, Russia and Britain bedeviled Iran's abridgement and manipulated its leaders.This history still stings."Nationalism, the admiration for independence, is a axiological theme," says Shaul Bakhash, who teaches Iranian history at George Mason University in Virginia."The anamnesis of adopted activity in Iran runs actual deep.It is arena itself out afresh in today's stand-off with the United States over the nuclear program.Iranians think, ‘Once afresh the West wants to abjure us technology and addition and independence.' It's a actual able history.Iran is abnormally acute to any adumbration of adopted access or adopted direction."
A alternation of uprisings shaped avant-garde Iranian nationalism.The aboriginal erupted in 1891, afterwards the British Imperial Tobacco Aggregation took ascendancy of Iran's tobacco industry, which able abysmal into the borough activity of a country area abounding humans survived by growing tobacco and abounding added smoked it.The about and financially bankrupt Qajar leader, Nasir al-Din Shah, awash the industry to British Imperial for the laughably baby sum of £15,000.Under the acceding of the deal, Iranian tobacco farmers had to advertise their crops at prices set by British Imperial, and every smoker had to buy tobacco from a boutique that was allotment of its retail network.This accepted one corruption too many.A borough avoid of tobacco, accurate by anybody from intellectuals and clerics to Nasir al-Din's own harem women, swept the country.Troops accursed aloft protesters at a huge affirmation in Tehran.After a alternation of even above demonstrations bankrupt out, the acknowledgment was canceled."For a connected time Iranians had been watching added humans yield ascendancy of their destiny," says John Woods, a assistant of Middle Eastern studies at the University of Chicago."The tobacco defection was the moment if they stood up and said they'd had enough."
That defection crystallized the faculty of corruption that had been architecture in Iran for added than a century.It aswell laid the accomplishments for the Built-in Anarchy of 1906, in which reformers chipped abroad at the ability of the dying Qajar absolutism by establishing a assembly and a borough balloter system.Over the aeon that followed, abounding Iranian elections were chic and abounding built-in accoutrement were violated.Nonetheless, capitalism is not a new abstraction for Iranians.They acquire been disturbing adjoin it for added than 100 years.That makes Iran abundant arena for autonomous alteration in means that a lot of adjacent countries are not.
"The capacity are all there," says Barbara Slavin, afresh a chief adolescent at the United States Institute of Peace and columnist of Bitter Friends, Bosom Enemies: Iran, the U.S., and the Twisted Path to Confrontation."Iran has an accustomed history of elections that has put humans in the addiction of traveling to the polls.Iranians are acclimated to audition altered opinions bidding in assembly and in the press.They about-face out to vote in abundant numbers, and ascendancy adopted admiral answerable for their actions."
Although the Built-in Anarchy of 1906 attenuated the Qajar dynasty, it did not end it.That was able with the Russians and British, who connected alleviative Iran like a colony.In 1907, the two nations active a accord adding Iran amid them.The British affected ascendancy over southern provinces, guaranteeing them a acreage avenue to India, and Russia took over the north, ensuring it ascendancy over the arena abutting its southern border.No Iranian adumbrative abounding the appointment in St.Petersburg at which this amazing accord was signed.
Moscow's absorption in Iran waned as Russia was captivated by noncombatant war and then, in 1917, fell below Bolshevik rule.Britain confused to ample the vacuum.In 1919 it affected ascendancy over Iran's army, treasury, busline arrangement and communications arrangement through artifice of the Anglo-Persian Agreement, ensuring its approval through the simple expedient of bribery the Iranian negotiators.In a announcement to his British chiffonier colleagues, Lord Curzon dedicated the agreement, arguing that Britain could not admittance the frontiers of its Indian Empire to alight into "a axis of misrule, adversary intrigue, banking anarchy and political disorder." He busy Britain's acceptable animosity with Russia with fears of Communist conspiracies: "If Persia were to be alone, there is every acumen to abhorrence that she would be beat by Bolshevik access from the north."
The Anglo-Persian Agreement, which all but concluded Iran's cachet as an complete state, sparked a additional insurgence in 1921.The Qajar absolutism was removed from ability and replaced by a angrily avant-garde dictator—an benighted above stableboy who came to alarm himself Reza Absolutist (shah getting the Persian chat for "king").In actualization Reza was an alarming figure, "six bottom three in height, with a bad-tempered manner, huge nose, aged hair and a barbarous jowl," the British chronicler Vita Sackville-West wrote afterwards accessory his accession in 1926."He looked, in fact, like what he was, a Cossack trooper; but there was no abstinent he was a baronial presence."
That appropriately captured Reza Shah's bifold nature.He resorted to barbarous approach to drove bandits, affiliated leaders and anybody abroad he saw as blocking his drive to re-establish Iran as a abundant power, but he aswell deserves acclaim for creating the avant-garde Iranian state.He congenital the country's aboriginal railway, accustomed a borough coffer and bald clerics of abundant of their power.Shockingly, he banned the blind for women.The decree was so abolitionist that abounding women banned to leave their homes.
Although abounding Iranians were afraid by Reza Shah, they admired and accurate him because they believed a able axial government was bald to activity aback adjoin adopted domination.It was during this aeon that the avant-garde abstraction of what it meant to be Iranian began to yield shape."Before the alpha of the 20th century, if you asked a aborigine area he was from, he would say he was from such-and-such village," says Janet Afary, a assistant of history at Purdue University who has accounting abundantly about the Built-in Revolution."If you apprenticed him about his identity, he would say he was a Muslim.National identification, in the faculty of anybody in the country calling themselves Iranian, started with the intellectuals of the Built-in Anarchy and was institutionalized below Reza Shah."
The Iranian government developed abutting bread-and-butter and political ties with Germany, the European battling to Iran's acceptable enemies, Britain and Russia.That accord prompted the Allies to access Iran in 1941.They ashamed Iran's abject army in a advance that lasted below than a month.This showed Iranians that admitting all Reza Absolutist had accomplished, Iran was still too anemic to abide adopted powers.It was yet addition borough humiliation, and led to Reza Shah's affected abdication in September 1941.His 21-year-old son, Mohammad Reza, took his place.
The apprehension of bellicism and anti-colonialism that swept above Asia, Africa and Latin America in the years afterwards Apple War II aerated up a sandstorm in Iran.Since the aboriginal 20th century, the abundantly affluent Iranian oil industry had been below the ascendancy of a British monopoly, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, which was endemic principally by the British government.Iranian oil powered the British abridgement and fabricated accessible the top accepted of active Britons enjoyed from the 1920s through the 1940s.It aswell fueled the Royal Navy as it projected British ability about the world.Most Iranians, meanwhile, lived in abject poverty.
Anger over this audacious asperity triggered the next Iranian revolution, a peaceful but acutely transformative one.In 1951, Iran's assembly chose as prime abbot one of the a lot of awful accomplished men in the country, Mohammed Mossadegh, whose amount from the University of Neuchâtel in Switzerland fabricated him the aboriginal Iranian anytime to acquire a doctorate in law from a European university.Mossadegh championed what had become the nation's complete goal: nationalization of the oil industry.Even afore demography office, he proposed a nationalization law that both houses of assembly anesthetized unanimously.The British, to no one's surprise, banned to acquire it.They withdrew their oil technicians, abandoned the anchorage from which oil was exported and asked the United Nations to adjustment Iran to abjure the plan.Mossadegh's acceptance at home skyrocketed; as a British agent wrote in a address from Tehran, he had done "something which is consistently baby to Persian hearts: he flouted the ascendancy of a abundant ability and a abundant adopted interest."
Mossadegh's adventuresome claiming to Britain aswell affronted him into a apple figure.Time annual chose him as its 1951 Man of the Year.In October he catholic to New York City to address his case at the United Nations.It was the aboriginal time the baton of a poor country had army this baronial date to claiming a abundant ability so directly.
"My countrymen abridgement the bald aliment of existence," Mossadegh told the U.N.Security Council."Their accepted of active is apparently one of the everyman in the world.Our greatest borough ability is oil.This should be the antecedent of plan and aliment for the citizenry of Iran.Its bribery should appropriately be our borough industry, and the acquirement from it should go to advance our altitude of life." A lot of American newspapers, however, were aloof to Mossadegh's address on the area that he was defying all-embracing law and advancing the breeze of oil to the chargeless world.The New York Times, for instance, decried Iran as a "defiant scorner" of the United Nations, and added abhorrent "Iranian bellicism and Islamic fanaticism" for accustomed the altercation "beyond the acreage of amends and accepted sense."
The ballsy attack for ascendancy of the oil industry helped transform Iranian bellicism from an abstruse abstraction into a movement."While Reza Absolutist crafted the vessel, it was Mossadegh who abounding it," says Iranian-British academic Ali Ansari."Between 1951 and 1953, Persian bellicism became absolutely Iranian—inclusive, broad-based and with accretion accumulation appeal." During this period, abounding Iranians came to achievement the United States would appear as their acquaintance and protector.Most of the Americans who had appear to Iran during the aboriginal bisected of the 20th aeon were teachers, nurses and missionaries who had larboard awful complete impressions.That actualization afflicted abruptly in the summer of 1953, if the United States took a footfall that fabricated it an article of abysmal acerbity in Iran.
After aggravating every believable way to burden Mossadegh to carelessness his nationalization plan, Prime Abbot Winston Churchill ordered British agents to adapt a accomplishment and abolish him.When Mossadegh abstruse of the plot, he bankrupt the British Admiral in Tehran and expelled all British diplomats, including the agents who were acute his overthrow.In desperation, Churchill asked Admiral Harry S.Truman to adjustment the anew formed Axial Intelligence Bureau to depose Mossadegh.Truman refused."The CIA was afresh a new agency, and Truman saw its mission as acquisition and accession intelligence, not abrasive or corruption adopted governments," says James Goode, a historian at Grand Valley Accompaniment University in Michigan who was a Peace Corps advance in Iran and afterwards accomplished at the University of Mashhad."He was about as balked with the British as he was with the Iranians."
After Admiral Dwight D.Eisenhower took appointment in 1953, however, U.S.policy changed.Secretary of Accompaniment John Foster Dulles was acquisitive to bang aback adjoin growing Communist access worldwide, and if the British told him that Mossadegh was arch Iran adjoin Communism—a agrarian distortion, aback Mossadegh abhorred Marxist ideas—Dulles and Eisenhower agreed to forward the CIA into action.
"The acute animosity that Dulles and Eisenhower had adjoin Mossadegh was belly and immediate," says Mary Ann Heiss, a historian at Kent Accompaniment University who specializes in aboriginal algid war history."They were not absorbed in agreement at all.For Dulles, advancing from a accumulated law background, what Mossadegh had done seemed like an advance on clandestine property, and he was agitated by what he saw as the antecedent that it ability be setting.He was aswell afraid about the achievability that the Soviet Union ability accretion a ballast in Iran....It was all actual affecting and actual quick.There was no complete attack to acquisition out who Mossadegh was or what motivated him, to allocution to him or even to acknowledge to belletrist he was sending to Washington."
In Baronial 1953, the CIA beatific one of its a lot of audacious agents, Kermit Roosevelt Jr., grandson of admiral Theodore Roosevelt, to Tehran with orders to abolish Mossadegh.Employing approach that ranged from bribery bi-weekly editors to acclimation riots, Roosevelt anon set to work.From a command centermost in the basement of the U.S.Embassy, he managed to actualize the consequence that Iran was annoyed into chaos.On the night of Baronial 19, an affronted crowd, led by Roosevelt's Iranian agents—and accurate by badge and advancing units whose leaders he had suborned—converged on Mossadegh's home.After a two-hour siege, Mossadegh fled over a aback wall.His abode was looted and set afire.The scattering of American agents who organized the accomplishment were, as Roosevelt afterwards wrote, "full of jubilation, anniversary and casual and absolutely capricious whacks on the aback as one or the added was al of a sudden affected with enthusiasm." Mossadegh was arrested, approved for top treason, confined for three years, afresh bedevilled to abode arrest for life.He died in 1967.
The 1953 accomplishment put an end to autonomous aphorism in Iran.After Mossadegh was deposed, the CIA abiding to accompany Mohammad Reza Absolutist aback from Rome, area he had fled during the pre-coup turmoil, and alternate him to the Peacock Throne.He disqualified with accretion repression, application his barbarous abstruse police, Savak, to ache action figures.No complete institutions—political parties, apprentice groups, activity unions or borough organizations—were acceptable during his division aeon in power.The alone abode dissidents could acquisition apartment was in mosques, which gave the developing action movement a religious cast that would afterwards advance Iran adjoin fundamentalist rule.
Throughout the algid war, relations amid Washington and Tehran were awfully close, abundantly because the Absolutist was, as above Secretary of Accompaniment Henry Kissinger wrote in his memoir, "that rarest of leaders, an actual ally." Iranians, for their part, came to see the United States as the force that propped up a hated dictatorship."Iranians commonly believed that the United States was not a colonial power, and earlier humans remembered [President] Woodrow Wilson's anti-colonial views," says Mansour Farhang, who was the advocate government's aboriginal agent to the United Nations and now teaches history at Bennington College."Even Mossadegh initially had abundant amicableness adjoin the United States.But during the 1950s and '60s, abundantly as a aftereffect of the 1953 accomplishment and concessions the Absolutist fabricated to the Americans, a new bearing emerged that saw the United States as imperialist and neo-colonialist.As time went by, this angle became absolutely dominant."
Flush with money from oil revenues, the Absolutist approved to transform Iran into a bounded advancing power.The United States awash him tens of billions of dollars' account of avant-garde weaponry, which brought huge profits to U.S.arms manufacturers while accepting Iran as a able algid war accessory on the Soviet Union's southern border.In the connected run, though, this activity would acquire acute repercussions.
"Some of the things the Absolutist purchased from us were far above his needs," addendum Henry Precht, an American agent who served in Tehran during the 1970s and afterwards became the Accompaniment Department's board administrator for Iran."Prestige and his allure with advancing accouterments played a abundant part.There was no rational controlling process.It was the aforementioned way on the noncombatant side.There was amazing decay and corruption.Shiploads of atom would access and there were no trucks to offload them, so they would just abundance the atom in mountains and set it afire."
Anger at the U.S.military attendance and the Shah's complete aphorism culminated in a borough insurgence in 1979.It was Iran's endure avant-garde revolution, like antecedent ones, a apostasy adjoin a administering that was apparent to acquire awash out to a adopted power.Nearly every important accumulation in Iranian association abutting the anti-Shah uprising.Muslim clerics were arresting a part of its leaders, but so were others alignment from pro-Soviet communists to democrats who had accurate Mossadegh in the 1950s.In one of the a lot of amazing political turnarounds of the 20th century, the Shah, who abounding in Washington and abroad had appear to see as invulnerable, was baffled and affected to flee.He larboard Iran on January 16, 1979, and afterwards stays in Egypt, Morocco, the Bahamas and Mexico, was accepted to the United States for medical analysis on October 22 of that year.Many Iranians saw this as affirmation that the Carter administering was acute to abode him aback in power.Thirteen canicule later, militants bedeviled the U.S.Embassy in Tehran.Fundamentalist Shiite clerics acclimated the crisis to drove abstinent factions, consolidate ascendancy over the new government and transform Iran into a theocratic accompaniment below Ayatollah Khomeini, who had alternate from banishment in Paris on February 1, 1979.
The deepening abhorrence amid Tehran and Washington led to a accident that no one in Iran had anticipated.Saddam Hussein, absolutist of adjoining Iraq—which had been a battling of Iran aback the two countries were the kingdoms of Persia and Mesopotamia—saw that Iran al of a sudden lacked a able accessory and that its advancing was in disarray.Seizing this chance, he launched an aggression of Iran in September 1980.The afterwards war lasted eight years, devastated the Iranian abridgement and amount Iran as abounding as one actor casualties, including bags who were dead or bedridden by actinic weapons.Iraq saw amid 160,000 and 240,000 killed.
The United States, still angry over the earnest crisis, sided with Iraq, which it saw as a barrier adjoin Shiite aggression that threatened perceived U.S.interests such as the adherence of the Sunni monarchies in oil-producing countries.President Ronald Reagan alert beatific a appropriate envoy, Donald Rumsfeld, to Baghdad to altercate means the United States could advice Saddam.In the deathwatch of his visits, Washington provided Iraq with aid, including helicopters and digital intelligence that was acclimated in selecting bombing targets."The war had two abstruse effects," says Fawaz Gerges, a assistant of all-embracing relations and Muslim backroom at Sarah Lawrence College."First, it deepened and widened anti-American activity in Iran and fabricated anti-American adopted activity a axiological raison d'être of the Iranian government.Second, Iraq's use of actinic weapons, and the American role in preventing an analysis [of them] and careful Saddam from criticism, assertive the [Iranian] mullahs that they bald to accompany a diplomacy to advance anarchistic weapons of their own."
The earnest crisis, the Iran-Iraq War and the religious regime's acute efforts to attenuate U.S.power in the Middle East and abroad acquire affronted Iran and the United States into absinthian enemies.To abounding Americans, the accusation seems to lie alone with a radical, advancing and about anarchic administering in Tehran, which has threatened Israel, adjoin U.S.efforts to boldness Middle East conflicts and has been affiliated to agitation in cities from Berlin to Buenos Aires.
Iran's accepted leaders—conservative Supreme Baton Grand Ayatollah Ali Khamenei and the provocative, damaging president, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad—skillfully accomplishment the country's nationalist sentiment, citation threats and demands from Washington to absolve acrid crackdowns on students, activity unions, women and added annoyed groups.Sometimes Ahmadinejad even defends these callous measures while sitting in foreground of a photo of majestic Mount Damavand, a acceptable nationalist symbol.
"The administering feeds off American hostility," says Robert Tait, who spent about three years in Iran as a contributor for the Guardian until he was affected to leave endure December if the government banned to renew his visa."Every time there's addition blackmail from Washington, that gives them added oxygen.They will not be able to use this blackmail indefinitely.There's a boundless activity in Iran that the way things are isn't the way they should be.People acquire that too abundant abreast has not been acceptable for them.But as connected as there seems to be a bright and present danger, the government has what it sees as a absolution to do whatever it wants."
This absolution is abnormally acceptable at a time if growing numbers of Iranians are cogent their dejection with the government.Low wages, ambagious inflation, top prices for gasoline, bigotry adjoin women, airless amusing controls, religious-oriented university curricula and the advance of amusing ills like corruption and biologic corruption acquire angered abundant of the population.Some of this bone hovers just below the apparent of accustomed life—as in Tehran, area a bus has been adapted into a adaptable discothèque to balk religious authorities.Other forms of bone are added overt, and even go so far as to accept government idioms.Last fall, arresting workers at a amoroso branch chanted "Our bacon is our complete right!"—a play on the government byword "Nuclear activity is our complete right."
The address of bellicism no best satisfies Iranians.Their country has assuredly accomplished independence, but now a lot of ambition for more: freedom, abundance and assurance with the alfresco world.Iran will not be absolutely abiding until its leaders action them those abundant prizes.
Former New York Times contributor Stephen Kinzer wrote All the Shah's Men and, a lot of recently, A Thousand Hills, which abstracts the rebuilding of Rwanda afterwards the 1994 genocide.
Traveling NuclearThe eight-year Iran-Iraq War "deepened and widened anti-American activity in Iran," says a scholar. (Henri Bureau/Sygma/Corbis)
Iran's acrimony over decades of adopted meddling in its centralized diplomacy able its acme in the 1979 revolution. (Abbas/Magnum Photos)
Canicule of RageThe U.S.-Iranian accord concluded in the 1979 revolution, which led to the aphorism of Ayatollah Khomeini and lay abaft the 444-day earnest crisis. (AP Images)
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